Lesson 4: Ethical Theories and Frameworks

Consequentialist theories judge actions by their outcomes. Utilitarianism is the most famous of these. It says an action is right if it produces the greatest good (happiness, well-being) for the greatest number. In practice, a utilitarian would calculate benefits vs. harms. For instance, if inventing a new gadget helps many people but hurts a few, a utilitarian may still support it. In a Philippine context, this might look like a company choosing a cheaper product that employs thousands versus a premium one that employs few. The key is the overall balance of good. Critics worry it can neglect individual rights (e.g. "Why not sacrifice one to save five?"), so utilitarianism must be applied carefully.

Deontological ethics (duty-based) focus on rules and duties, not outcomes. Immanuel Kant's version is well-known: an action is moral if it follows a universal rule or duty. Kant's Categorical Imperative says we should only act on maxims that we can will to become universal laws. For example, always telling the truth is a duty, regardless of consequences. This means you respect others as ends in themselves, not means to an end. In practice, someone might refuse to lie even if lying would save them from trouble, because truth-telling is a duty. Rights-based ethics (closely related) emphasize respecting people's basic rights (life, privacy, freedom). For example, workers have a right to safe conditions; ignoring that is unethical even if it saves a company money.